Introduction and History of Psychology

Actually, it is too late for  posting this article, because this site has talked many fields in psychology, but it is ok! No problem reviewing again the basic and the first subject matter in psychology.

Generally psychology was defined  as the systematic, scientific study of behaviors and mental processes. Psychology has grown since ancient Greeks, it has been defined in numerous ways. As early as 400 B.C., the ancient Greeks philosophized about the relationship of personality characteristics to physiological traits.

Psychology has been independent science since it has a special method by the proof of  psychological laboratory was opened in Leipzig, Germany, by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), and soon afterwards the first experimental studies of memory were published. Wundt was instrumental in establishing psychology as the study of conscious experience, which he viewed as made up of elemental sensations. In addition to the type of psychology practiced by Wundt—which became known as structuralism. Other early schools of psychology were functionalism, which impacted  to the development of  behaviorism, and Gestalt psychology.

Other figure who had a important role in enhancing psychology and enriched was Sigmund Freud and his method of psychoanalysis early in the twentieth century, emphasis shifted from conscious

experience to unconscious processes investigated by means of free association and other techniques. According to Freud, behavior and mental processes were the result of mostly unconscious struggles within each person between the drive to satisfy basic instincts, such as sex or aggression, and the limits imposed by society. He also explained the structure of personality that were Id, Ego, Superego.  At the same time that Freud’s views were gaining popularity in Europe, an American psychology professor, John B. Watson, was pioneering the behavioral approach, which focuses on observing and measuring external behaviors rather than the internal workings of the mind. B.F. Skinner, who spent decades studying the effects of reward and punishment on behavior, helped maintain the predominance of behaviorism in the United States through the 1950s and 1960s. Since the 1970s, many psychologists have been influenced by the cognitive approach, which  is concerned with the relationship of mental processes to behavior.

 Cognitive psychology focuses on how people take in, perceive, and store information, and how they process and act on that information. Additional psychological perspectives include the

neurobiological approach, focusing on relating behavior to internal processes within the brain and nervous system, and the phenomenological approach, which is most concerned with the individual’s subjective experience of  the world rather than the application of psychological

theory to behavior. While all these approaches differ in their explanations of individual behavior, each contributes an important perspective to the psychological image of the total human being.

There are many aspects are discussed in psychology. The subfields are often overlapping areas of interest rather than isolated domains. Basic psychology encompasses the subfields concerned with the advancement of psychological theory and research. Experimental psychology employs

laboratory experiments to study basic behavioral processes shared by different species, including sensation, perception, learning, memory, communication, and motivation.

Physiological psychology is concerned with the ways in which biology shapes behavior and mental processes, and developmental psychology is concerned with behavioral development over the entire life span. Other subfields include social psychology, quantitative psychology, and the psychology of personality. Applied psychology is the area of psychology concerned

with applying psychological research and theory  to problems posed by everyday life. It includes clinical psychology, the largest single field in psychology. Clinical psychologists—accounting for 40 percent of all psychologists— are involved in psychotherapy and psychological testing. Like clinical psychologists, counseling psychologists apply psychological principles to diagnose

and treat individual emotional and behavioral problems. Other subfields of applied psychology include school psychology, which involves the evaluation and placement of students; educational psychology, which investigates the psychological aspects of the learning process;

and industrial psychology and organizational psychology, which study the relationship between people and their jobs. Community psychologists investigate environmental factors that contribute to mental and emotional disorders;  health psychologists deal with the psychological aspects

of physical illness, investigating the connections between the mind and a person’s physical condition; and consumer psychologist study the preferences and buying habits of consumers as well as their reactions to certain advertising.

            Many psychological book proof that psychology is more develop now than before. Thus Book also explained psychology with many approaches.
           And now, Moslem scholar has a strong intention to develop Islamic psychology. It is a new approach in psychology. Although in still development, toward Islamic psychology seems to get many attention for Moslem scholar by integrating a modern psychology with Qur’an and Hadith.

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Introduction to Psychology

Really psychology book for student

To understand a lot of psychology, student need a book which gives a complete subject matter of psychology from the definition of psychology, until deep and specific consideration about developmental psychology or social psychology, and the types of mental disorders and its healing. Introduction to psychology contains a main subject of psychology and consider it deeply.

            The parts in this book, was explained  too detail and systematic. Many figures help you to understand the writer explanation. Writer was very creative to give a reader understanding about many aspects in psychology. You will not only get a theory related to memory, but also get an example and the figure that make you very easy to get it.

            Introduction to psychology must be read  by every student in psychology department. The lectures are also advised to make this book as reference. Student or reader will get a true and complex psychology concept. Writer not only paid attention with the western theory that could be subjective, but also paid attention in many perspectives in psychology. It is a new step to make psychology better in understanding a human. Psychologist must have a wide view  when he observed the human behavior. Psychologist have to make approach  which  he can understand  human complex, and this book will bring you to it.

Tittle                            : Introduction  to Psychology

Writer                          : Rod Plotnik and Haig Kouyumdjian

Age                             : 2011

Publisher                     : Wadsworth  Cengage learning

Download Link           : http://depositfiles.com/files/zpj6djw1b

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Click on the title of articles below :

1. Psychology Based on Islam
2. Ebook, Solution for buying book cost 
3. Philosophy in Writing
4. Love

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EBOOK, SOLUTION OF COSTS BUYING BOOKS

             The book is a basic requirement for students. He cannot be called as  a student if has never read a book moreover  buy it. As a student who cares about college, needs references to the primary needs are certainly more important than the secondary needs such as fashion apparel, or notebook mode. Quality of books  will increase student capacity to understand thoroughly the various courses that are being pursued.              However, the question is how the book could have qualified. A student must be willing to spend much of money to buy a good book. During these books in certain subjects that are considered qualified are written by scientists or foreign experts in English, because it is able to provide detailed and comprehensive understanding. Prices of books translated from English language references are not cheap. for example in the field of psychology book called "Life Span Develepment" by JW Santrock which has been translated into Indonesian and published by Airlangga prices reached USD 20.  The budget to buy the book will increase over the quality demands of knowledge a student. However, it does not mean this is not tricked, however, students should be able to utilize all means available to get a good book. 

             One solution of this problem is to use the Internet facilities. Students can use internet facility to download various types of books are in. Pdf as a reference or supplementary reading with a variety of themes ranging from information technology, psychology, health, English and economically free. The main prerequisite is a little perseverance and the willingness and ability to understand English. Perseverance is required to find the download links from the books, by tracing in detail for example, after entering a keyword in google like "link download beginning google book bloggers" user will find many links, with perseverance users will find a link where the book can be downloaded. Users can also login to the site share the address book as www.ebookee.org where there are hundreds of shared book that can be downloaded at that address by entering keywords in the search book. Other capital is little ability to understand English. The books on the share is nearly 90% use  English, so at least those of you who want to understand the book should be a little understanding of English.                By such means, at least the problem of limited funds to purchase a good references can be solved. In addition, it also motivated to increase capacity in a foreign language. Students who are creative to be sensitive and have open mind to the environment in the sense of not relying on references in Indonesian language only that are very limited number, but also use English-language references, scattered freely in the virtual world in very much.

           

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Human Auditory Organ (Hearing)

Auditory organ / human auditory function and have had a very vital role for humans to catch the stimuli around it which is then perceived as sound. Humans can hear the water running, voices, etc.. also through the role of this amazing organ.Physical and psychological dimensions of sound (sound)Sound waves, a periodic pressure of air, water, and other media. When the tree falls, then the tree and the ground will vibrate, adjust the sound waves in air that will go into the ear or ears vibrate. Sound waves are transformed into amplitude and frequency. Amplitude is the intensity of the sound wave itself. Which barred the flash, resulting in a very large amplitude. Noise is the sensation associated with it, but not always identic with the amplitude. example is, people who speak more quickly will sound more noisy, or louder than the music slow, whereas the amplitude of both.

         The frequency of sound or sound is a matter of sound pressure per second in the measure heartz per second (Hz). While the pitch associated with aspects of perception. Pitch is our subjective experience of the existence of sound, high or low, the brain calculated through a specific physical stimulus, in this case the speed or frequency of sound waves. So that means the sound waves of low amplitude low soft sound, while higher mean amplitude of the sound waves and noise. For more details, please see the following picture:

Hearing Processes

            The process of hearingThe hearing process starts from the impulse of stimuli that were captured by the vibrations to our ears. Then the vibration into the ear through the ear and the tympanic membrane and then vibrate the tympanic membrane or eardrum. Vibration of the eardrum causes  Vibration of  three tiny bones hammer, anvil, and stirrup, and stirrup. Then the vibration is stronger impulses in the cochlea so that changing the position of hair cells. In this stage an open ion channels, depolarization, action potential, and release of neurotransmitters. Then excite the auditory nerve cells, and the information reaches the primary auditory cortex in the superior temporal.

Auditory hair cell receptor, is a miniature hair-shaped cells protruding from the underside of the membrane of the cochlea called the basilar membrane. Vibration of fluid in the cochlea pipe, causing the movement of the basilar membrane, which literally turned the hair cells. Bending mechanism of hair cells generate forces which, when sufficiently large electrical impulses activate the movement of nerve cells.

Hearing DisorderDeafDeaf as a whole are rare, 99% still respond in a loud voice. Deaf is divided into 2a. Conductive deafness (Deaf middle ear)Namely interference noise on the conducting outer or middle ear. bone-re in the middle ear failed to conduct proper vibrations in the cochlea.This can be caused by infection, disease, bone growth that is not fair and sometimes only temporary, if continued, treatment with surgery or hearing aids for amplification of the stimulus.b. Nerve deafnessthere is damage to:
            - The cochlea or
            - Hair cells
            - Auditory nervehearing aids can not compensate for the extensive nerve damage, but can help in cases of loss of a number of receptors in the cochlea. Nerve deafness due to several causes, among them: could be due to hereditary or genetic factors, pregnant women who are sick rubella (measles), syphilis, other toxins, the supply of oxygen to the baby's brain is not sufficient at birth, meningitis, certain drugs in childhood children: aspirin repeated exposure to loud sounds such as the residents who live near the airport, every day, heard the loud plane and head traumatic, tumors.

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Memory or Remembering

            I told you my story when I was queuing to make cash withdrawals at Automatic Teller Machine. After a few minutes waiting in line, The last people in the ATM transaction has completed his transaction. But I was dealing with a person in a few seconds. Once I get an ATM card from ATM turns out the person is still inside the ATM machine. Finally I tried to chase that person to return the valuables to him. Unfortunately, I could no longer remember how the characteristics of the person in detail. When met after he came out of the ATM before, I only remember that the person is wearing a Black Jacket. I experienced this event closely associated with memory.
            Memory or memory is a function of the brain that involve cognition in information retrieval. In the psychology of memory widely studied through the field of psychology physiology. The process of remembering, namely: 1) obtain information 2) store the information 3) recall information. Generally memory is divided into two: Short-term memory (short-term memory) or Long Term Memory (long-term memory). Short-term memory working only a few minutes. While short-term memory is a storehouse of information that can be called back after hours or even a lifetime. To achieve long-term memory information that has been stored in the Sort Term Memory must undergo certain processes rather than by itself. The things that affect them is repetition, which means how often the information is repeated for the remember or recalled. Besides, how meaningful information also affects his memory, it is also called a meaning full moment . Recall Recall includes absorbing information that has been studied previously without or with little assistance of external cues. For example when someone is working on an essay about it do not have choices that can be useful to recall the answer. Recognition Recognition include identifying information that has been previously studied with the help of cues from the outside. For example when someone is there to answer questions multiple choice someone gets help to recall the things he had learned through the answer choices that are available.

Memory Organization

One of the questions is proving of great human memory is how our memory can store hundreds of faces, names dozens of other movie player and so on. This process can be explained through a theory called network theory. This theory explains that  we keep these ideas in a separate or distinct categories called nodes (vertices). Besides, we make associations between information that has been studied we also make a link or relationship between nodes such that adorn thousands of connections between files which exceptional in storing and absorbing information.

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Thinking Explanation in Psychology

A. The definition of thinking: The mind is the idea while thinking processes of the brain involved in processing information such as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, to reason and make decisions. Some limit the definition of thinking is as follows: 1. Thinking is the activity of human reason as a process of strengthening the relationship between stimulus and response. 2. Thinking is a reasonable working mengasosiasika various views with the knowledge that has been stored in the mind long before the emergence of new knowledge. 3. Thinking can be interpreted to remember something, and questioned whether there is a relationship between what is intended. 4. Thinking in exploring substantive Paing psychic awareness of human nature. 5. Thinking is processing information mentally or cognitively by rearranging the information from the environment and the symbols are stored in the memory of his past. 6. Thinking is a symbolic representation of some event train of ideas in a precise and careful that began with the problem. 7. Thinking is a mental process mental representations newly formed through the transformation of information by interaction yangkompleks attributes such as the assessment of mental abstraction, logic, imagination and problem-solving. 

B. Thinking Process The processes of thought are as follows: 1. Understanding the formation Understanding, formed through the three stages as follows: a. Analysis of the characteristics of similar objects sejumalah. These objects we look at the elements - elements one by one. For example, or set up a human sense. b. Comparison - compare these features to be found traits - traits which are the same, which is not the same, which is always there and which ones do not always exist where the essential and which are not essential. c. Abstraction, that is set aside, dispose, traits that are not essential, capturing the essential characteristics. 2. Opinion Formation Formation of opinion is to put the relationship between two terms or more. The opinions expressed in the language called the sentence, which consists of basic sentence or the title or subject and predicate. Furthermore, the opinion can be divided into three kinds: a. Affirmative or positive opinion, the opinion which declares a state of something, for example Amin was clever, Si Ana Rajin and so on. b. Negative opinion, the repeal That opinion, which clearly explains the absence of anything thing else on the nature of things: For example Sitotok Ana's Stupid The Lazy and so on. c. Modalities That opinion stating opinion kebarangkalian, the possibility - the possibility of something on the nature of things: for example it might rain today, Amin might not come. And so on. 3. Conclusion withdrawal or Establishment Decision The decision is the result of the act makes sense to form a new opinion based on the opinions that already exist. There are three kinds of conclusions, ie
a. Inductive inference the decisions taken from the opinion - opinion toward a particular public opinion.
b. Deductive conclusions
Deductive decision drawn from the general to the specific, so in contrast to inductive decision.
c. Conclusion analogical The decision is a decision that analogical obtained by comparing or customize with specific opinions that already exist.

C. Thinking Function
Thinking function involves
Process Troubleshooting 1. Interpretation Problems: Known also by defining the problem by way of creative thinking 2. Problem Solving Strategy: Make a selection of the best problem-solving strategies
some problem-solving strategies are often used
- Trial and error It took a long time (Sort Term Memory). Trial and error is to try to resolve if one tried to repeat it will know where lies the fault.
- Informational Retrieval Ie retrieve the information for solving problems quickly (Long Term Memory)
 
- Algorithm That is a problem-solving method that guarantees a solution if the problem of available opportunities for someone to develop it.
 
- Heuristic That helps to simplify the problem, influenced by past experience. There are four heuristic methods are:
1. Hill Climbing A heuristic strategy in which each step is concern to move closer to its final destination.
2. Sub goals Method of solving a problem by making it smaller or in pieces, everywhere respective aims to simplify the solution
3. Mean and Analysis A heuristic strategy that will target to reduce differences between the situation with the desired objectives through the intermediary of a way.
4. Working Backward A heuristic strategy where we have to move backwards from our goal in some circumstances
D. Development of Thinking
          Piaget argued that the logical way of thinking evolved gradually, at about the age of two years and in about seven years. Piaget explained, thinking children did not like thinking adults. Children's minds seem to be      different with a larger person. Children seem to solve the problem in an entirely different level. Differences children who are smaller and bigger is not too related to the issues that older children have more knowledge, but because they are different kinds of knowledge, the present invention Piaget began studying the development of mental structure. The following developmental stages according to Piaget:
1. Sensory motor Stage Lasts from birth until the age of 2 years. At this stage, infants build an understanding of the world by coordinating the experiences of sensors (such as seeing and hearing) with physical motor actions, the so-called sensory motor. At the beginning of this stage, the newborn has a little more than a reflex patterns. 2. Pre-operational stage Lasted roughly from age 2 to 7 years. At this stage, children begin to describe the world with words and pictures. Symbolic thinking beyond the simple relationship between the sensor information and physical action. However, even preschoolers can symbolically depicts the world, according to Piaget, they are still not able to implement what is called "surgery"-an internalized mental actions that allow the children to do mentally what was previously done physically. 3. Concrete operational stage Lasted roughly from ages 7-11 years. At this stage children can carry out operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as far as thought can be applied to the specific examples or concrete. For example, concrete operational thinking can not imagine the steps necessary to solve an algebra problem, which is too vague to be considered at this stage of development. 4. Formal Operational Stage It appears from the age of 11-15 years. At this stage the individual beyond the real world, concrete experiences and think in abstract and more logical. As part of a more abstract thinking, adolescents develop a picture of an ideal state. They can think what kind of parents the ideal and compare their parents with this ideal standard. They began to prepare for the possibilities for the future and in awe of what they can do. In solving the problem, the formal operational thinker is more systematically, develop hypotheses about why things happen like that, then test this hypothesis by way of deductive reasoning. E. Language and Mind
            Thinking is an activity that resulted in the discovery of the human person is directed to a destination. We think to find the knowledge and understanding that we want. Thinking is the main thing that distinguishes between humans and animals. Humans may think because human whereas animals do not have the language. Animal language is an instinct that does not need to be studied and taught, while human language is the result of culture that must be learned and taught. Disadvantages of the animal does not know the words to issue his mind. With language, humans can give names to everything, whether visible or invisible. All objects, jobs, and others abstract, is named. That way, everything that has ever observed and experienced can be saved, be responses and experiences, then processed (think) into insights.              In everyday life, is easy once observed that originated from the mind, then set out in the talk, there appeared many effects both positive and negative. So, the truth of a language is not solely lie in the composition of grammatical alone, but also on governance thought, intention, and the implications that arise from an utterance. The idea is not simply embodied one word only, but requires a form of sentence. Regarding the relationship of language and mind there is a saying "Language indicates the quality of the speaker". Or expanded again "demonstrated the nation's language" means a person's personality or a nation can be observed and analyzed from the speech he said, he loves reading, also from the character of the existing language support. Language in the system memory, then work affecting the course of feelings and thoughts that passed its out-put in the form of speech and behavior.             Watson through his theory to say that thinking is essentially implicit behavior. Thought to be motor behavior. Thinking out loud aims to whisper to yourself. Thus the indissoluble link between thought and language. Language is the actualization of the mind. No one's language will not understand what others are thinking and what she thought.

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PSYCHOLOGY BASED ISLAM

             Psychology has long been growing as science in the world. Since first introduced by Wilhelm Wundt, psychology has grown rapidly. After Wundt opened his psychology lab many students from America migrated to Germany to study psychology under the guidance of Wundt. Psychology books have been more and more. Increasing streams in psychology shows  the complexity of the psychology of looking at the behavior of  its main objects as a picture of mental processes.              Psychology is not only attractive to western students, but also for Muslim  students. Many Muslim studied psychology later. Muslim students found some weaknesses that are owned by the psychologist who developed in the west culture and under western philosophical system. One of the most significant drawback is the western psychology is not able to touch the spiritual aspect of man. Supposedly, the etymologi psychology means the study of the soul, but the psychological aspect is not able to touch the human psyche. Interpret the concept of human weakness by western psychologists this is the major turning point in the rise of Islamic students to re-take basis of the Qur'an and hadith as the main reference in developing the science of psychology.            When viewed in terms of history, the development of science Muslims stopped after the collapse of the Abbasiya. The destruction of Baghdad as the crown of Islamic civilization has impacted the decline in science among Muslims. Science is subsequently moved into the hands of the west. Such works in the field of medicine that should be continued by the Muslims were forced to stop developing among Muslims due to colonization. So it is with psychology. Although not traditionally called psychology, but the works of  Muslim scholars at that time had been colored with a variety of writings that discussed the psychological stuff. Call it the Ibn Sina and Al-Gazali who has described many things about human concepts.            Currently there are no longer good for anything dissolved in the euphoria of the past glory of Islam. What's more sorry that the science of psychology was not developed by the Muslims and link it to other sciences such as medical science developed by scientists western psychology. Suffice it to boosters for Muslim students to study and develop the science of psychology that has been lost many centuries ago. The best way to develop a psychology is based it on revelation. Logic is a tool used to understand the revelation. Phenomena related to humans should be returned to the verses of al-quran and hadith, then further developed by integrating with modern psychology. Psychology that is now developing a tool and revelation is ideology. Thus Muslims have strong opinions about the basic psychology. They will be psychologists who deliver the verses of Allah.

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Your Developing baby

      

Prepare for attendence your baby

     It is the most simple and complete book in explaining the developing of baby. Very simple and give the illustration about the journey of baby when baby was in mother’s womb. We can also look at the real picture about the baby development. It was begun from fertilization until the birth. This book also contain many simple term in medical term related to medical womb.  

            For you who curious about the evidence during the baby in the mother’s womb, the miraculous inside the womb, this book is very suitable to be read. It include in new book. A book was not only written based on the reference book, but also the real phenomenon. Your baby developing is written by help of many doctor in Harvard medical school. Through ultrasound image we can know the development of heart, brain, bones, lungs, and other internal organs.

            Some case in related to pregnancy like twins was also discussed in this book .  Other cases like triplet and beyond was also explained based on medical view. You can get the picture this case too.

            Certainly, every father and mother must read this book. Reading this book, can prepare someone to welcome for their child. It can increase your knowledge about pregnancy. Writers also pay attention in mother and baby health. So, you will get information about mother and baby health in the fifth chapter. It is important to you to know something which is advantage or dangerous for your baby.

Title                            :  Your Developing Baby conception to birth

Writer                         : Peter M. Doublet and Carol B. Benson

Year                            : 2008

Publisher                     : Mc.Graw Hill companies

Download link             : http://www.filesonic.com/file/36074249/0071488715_Your_Developing_Baby.rar

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